Current Community Building Practices

 

Abstract

This paper is a survey of current community building theory, practices, application, and results. The alphabetical list of practices considered in this paper is by no means exhaustive. The information on each practice: considers the conditions in which it would be applied, the facilitation and other resources needed to be effective, the process itself, and the results of using this process. Web addresses for sites with more information are listed with the practice.

The practices considered include many variables such as:

·         Structure – From strong as in Roberts Rules to flexible as in Dynamic Facilitation.

·         Time – From a six month Resilient Communities Study to five minutes of Silence.

·         Facilitation – From highly skilled for Dynamic Facilitation to unskilled for several of the practices.

·         Participants – From three to three thousand and from casual observers to highly committed individuals who are ready to have their lives permanently changed.

These variables support implementation in a wide variety of situations. This variety of applications, in one form or another, open minds and hearts to new ways of seeing; the world and its peoples, the individual’s inner world, and the world of intention and spirit.

Definitions

The Aspen Institute’s “vision of a ‘built’ community is one in which residents look out for both themselves and for others, creating environments in which a critical proportion of residents is positively invested.” (Auspos 21) Joseph McNeely of the Development Training Institute sees:

neighbors learning to rely on each other, working together on concrete tasks that take advantage of new self awareness of their collective and individual assets and, in the process, creating human family and social capital that provides a new base for a more promising future and reconnection to America’s mainstream. (McNeely 742)

McNeely goes on to assert that today’s community building needs to be:

1) Focused around specific improvement initiatives in a manner that reinforces values

and builds social and human capital.

2) Community-driven with broad resident involvement.

3) Comprehensive, strategic, and entrepreneurial.

4) Asset-based.

5) Tailored to neighborhood scale and conditions.

6) Collaboratively linked to the broader society to strengthen community institutions and enhance outside opportunities for residents.

7) Consciously changing institutional barriers and racism. (McNeely 745-6)

Not every practice cited in this survey will include every one of these characteristics. However effective community building will include most if not all of these characteristics. Among the practices cited you will find both techniques and organizations. Community building practices are actions, processes or strategies that are used to deepen and diversify relationships in and between communities.

 

Alliance for Children and Families                         http://www.alliance1.org/

Theory. The alliance was created in 1988 as a network of family services agencies. In an article in the journal of Social Work Alice Johnson noted that early in its development the alliance:

 “recommended reorienting counseling services – that is, moving from the traditional service delivery approach of intake, assessment, treatment, and closure to building the capacity of individuals, families, and neighborhoods. (Lengyel, 1998). Reengineering service delivery requires viewing ‘individuals and families as embedded in and dependent on social context, thus reclaiming the historic community orientation of social work. The key to community redesign of service delivery is to recognize the communities capacity to care for itself, by making our interventions align with existing relationships, articulate with existing community structure, or create enduring new capacity within the neighborhood. (Lengyel, 2002, p.8ff) (Johnson, 320)

Application. The alliance is providing the same social services to individuals and families as before but with a philosophy that recognizes the importance of community building.

Resources. According to Johnson, community oriented agencies have had a difficult time finding workers who understand the role of community in the lives of their clients.

Ministers, outreach workers, case managers without social work credentials – doing the ‘real social work.’ Service is more effective when individual and family clients have a strong community in which they receive and contribute support. (Johnson 320)

Process. The Alliance has established a series of communities of practice (CoP) for member professional staff.  The purpose of each community of practice (CoP) is to facilitate the sharing of information that will enable CoP members to perform at high levels. This is accomplished through both formal and informal means.

Results. Publication of the book, Faces of Change: Personal Experiences of Welfare Reform in America which contains the stories of 100 welfare recipients builds awareness of the welfare system and empathy for the people caught in it. Scanning the Horizon: Trends, Developments & Innovations Impacting the Future of Child and Family Services are reports from the Alliance’s Scenario Planning project that provide the framework for initiating the process of scenario thinking within nonprofit human service agencies.

 

Appreciative Inquiry                                 http://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu/            

Theory. The theory behind Appreciative Inquiry was originally articulated by two professors at the Weatherhead School of Management, David Cooperrider and Suresh Srivastva, in 1987. In “Appreciative Inquiry: A positive revolution in change” David Cooperrider and Diane Whitney define Appreciative Inquiry as:

 the cooperative search for the best in people, their organizations, and the world around them. It involves systematic discovery of what gives a system ‘life’ when it is most effective and capable in economic, ecological, and human terms. AI involves the art and practice of asking questions that strengthen a system’s capacity to heighten positive potential. It mobilizes inquiry through crafting an “unconditional positive question’ often involving hundreds or sometimes thousands of people.”

Some other notable proponents of Appreciative Inquiry are: Martin E.P. Seligman, the father of Positive Psychology, Marcus Buckingham, leading authority on “Strengths-based Leadership”, Jane Watkins, the co-author of one of the best selling books on Appreciative Inquiry, and IDEO designer Peter Coughlan. (AI website)

Application. This process has been used in urban renewal projects, corporate development as well as third world development projects. Because it is a philosophical approach it can become the framework for a wide variety of endeavors.

 Resources.  Appreciative Inquiry strives to engage all aspects of the community and draw on the assets of each. In the “imagine Chicago” project begun in 1992 both elders and youth received training that helped bridge the generational divide. In documenting the project Bliss Browne says: In 6 years of development, schools created dynamic learning connections

 among teachers, students, parents, community members and museums, connections that continue to enliven teaching and influence our city. (Browne 405)

Process. To evoke a vision and plan for change Appreciative Inquiry asks questions such as:

What possibilities exist that we have not yet considered? What’s the smallest change that could make the biggest impact? What solutions would have us both win? Tell me about a time when you experienced positive energy that was infectious.  What was the situation?  What created the positive energy?  How did it feel to be a part of it?  What did you learn?

If positive energy were the flame of the organization, how would you spark it?  How would you fuel it to keep it burning bright? (AI powerpoint presentation)

Appreciative Inquiry uses Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation to keep projects on track after the initial visioning and launch. Village dialogues, organizational assessments, semi-structured interviews, field observation, SWOT analysis, myths, folk stories, quotes, songs and real objects are all tools that keep a positive, asset oriented focus.

Results. Blisse Browne said of the Imaging Chicago project:

In addition to gaining a shared hope and identity across a well-documented intergenerational divide, many participants benefited from learning the power of intergenerational appreciative inquiry. Shifting civic conversation away from problem solving to collective visioning about a shared future created energy and opened new ways of thinking. Learning to ask and answer positive questions, and to engage in active listening was a subtle and welcome shift for many participants. A significant by-product of the process was an obvious collective ease and goodwill among all those who had participated—as was evident to me in the May gathering of all those who had participated in the citywide interview process. Constructive civic conversation, in a diverse group, created momentum and interest in making commitments to bring the visions to life. (Browne 398)

 

Assets Based Community Development    http://www.northwestern.edu/ipr/abcd.html

Theory. The assets based approach to community development asks us to look at the proverbial “glass half full” rather than the “glass half empty.” Mapping community assets; people, skills, organizations, resources, etc. generates hope, and possibility thinking. This approach includes, as assets, disabled and disenfranchised individuals and groups as well as vacant lots, abandoned buildings and community waste. The assets path is internally focused and relationship driven.

Application. This process is especially applicable to the physical aspect of community development. It presumes that when the assets come together a vision and plan will develop. This approach could collapse for the lack of relationship skills.

Resources. As with most projects, someone who understands this process and will stay with it until it becomes self supporting is essential. The first assets to locate in the community are the individuals or organizations that will survey the community and map the assets. After this the primary resources are within the community.

Process. The assets based approach begins by completely mapping the capacities and assets of individuals, organizations and institutions. The next step is to build relationships among the local assets for mutually beneficial problem-solving within the community. The assets need to be fully mobilized for economic development and information sharing. Convene a broadly representative group to build a community vision and a plan. Then leverage activities, investments and resources from outside the community to support asset-based, locally defined development.

Results. In Building Communities from the Inside Out John Kretzman and John McKnight provide an extensive listing of stories of the successful application of asset based projects. This approach keeps attention on capacity, resources and possibility.

 

Bioregionalism / Permaculture / Biomimicry

                  http://www.permaculture.com/site/node/136   /  http://www.biomimicry.net

Theory. Bioregionalism differentiates communities by geography, ecology, history, and culture. A bioregion is both a geographical terrain and a terrain of consciousness. (Berg) Bioregionalism encourages the organization of human endeavors by bioregion rather than the current political divisions. Each bioregion is unique and these characteristics should be considered when building communities. Tom Atlee notes that:

A statement of principles formulated by the first North American Bioregional Congress in 1984 suggests that: "People can join with neighbours to discuss ways we can work together to: 1) learn what our special local resources are, 2) plan how to best protect and use those natural and cultural resources, 3) exchange our time and energy to best meet our daily and long-term needs, and 4) enrich our children's local and global knowledge. Security begins by acting responsibly at home. (Atlee)

 Permaculture designs systems so humans receive the maximum benefit from the natural environment while expending minimum effort and while sustaining a mutually supportive relationship for at least a thousand years. Biomimicry studies nature’s best ideas and then imitates these designs and processes to solve human problems

Application. The principles of these three practices can be integrated into all community building efforts.

Resources. All three practices require the participation of individuals or institutions that are knowledgeable in the sciences and ecology. These scientists must then educate the general public to design and work with nature rather than against it. In the end the public must be willing to learn and must be willing to put the needs of future generations before their own immediate gratification.

Process. Tom Atlee, of the co-intelligence institute, said:

Bioregionalism is a call to get to know our local land and water; our local weather and sky; our local plants and animals; our local neighbors and communities. It is a call to join our hearts, hands and minds with what has been, what is, and what could be, in this place. (Atlee/topics/bioregionalism)

Peter Berg, director of the Planet Drum Foundation, said:

The concept of a bioregion as the basic location where people live, and the practice of reinhabitation of that life-place by its residents, are necessary to rejoin human beings into the overall web of life. Harmonizing with the natural systems of each bioregion is a necessary step toward preserving the whole biosphere. (Berg)

Results. On the Permaculture website we find a statement which applies to all three practices:

Permaculture design teaches you to understand and mirror the patterns found in healthy natural environments. You can then build profitable, productive, sustainable, cultivated ecosystems, which include people, and have the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural ecosystems. (permaculture)

 

Café’s                                                                  http://www.theworldcafe.com

Theory. The quote on the World Café’ homepage captures much of what the Café movement is about: “Awakening and engaging collective intelligence through conversations about questions that matter.” (World) Underlying this statement is the belief that putting people together, with a topic, and a little structure, will result in breakthroughs in the quality of life. These are advances in personal growth as well as the social actions of the resulting communities.

Application. There are Café’s covering a wide variety of topics in most cities. Hearing the views of others, expressing their own views, and being heard all build community through understanding and empathy. Establishing an ongoing Café’ would support the persistence of other community building efforts.

Resources. A facilitator who helps the group establish the topic and follow the guidelines is a must. However this person need not be highly trained. A card with Cafe’ agreements and the steps of the process is very helpful.

Process. The Café’ guide points out that the Café’ format is easy, flexible, and adaptable using these guidelines. Clarify purpose – knowing why you are coming together helps get the right people and establish the conversation. Create a hospitable space, explore questions that matter to both  the people that are there and the world, encourage everyone’s contribution, and connect diverse perspectives. The guide notes that:

The opportunity to move between tables, meet new people, actively contribute your thinking, and link the essence of your discoveries to ever-widening circles of thought is one of the distinguishing characteristics of the Café. As participants carry key ideas or themes to new tables, they exchange perspectives, greatly enriching the possibility for surprising new insights. (World)

All that remains is to listen for insights and share discoveries. The process consists of arranging 4 – 5 people at each table, pose the question, give each participant a couple minutes to speak to the question while the others at the table listen, use the table cover as a note pad, after everyone has spoken either take time for another round or have everyone but one person (the table host) move to other tables. After the table host summarizes the previous conversation repeat the process. For the last round have people return to their original table. “After several rounds of conversation, initiate a period of sharing discoveries and insights in a whole group conversation.” (World)

Results. Because most people do not have the opportunity to speak without interruption or listen intently, these actions, in and of themselves, deepen community. Café’s support the democratic process by helping people stay informed about issues in the world and involved in the community. In addition the conversation may result in action.

 

Center for Neighborhood Technology                http://www.cnt.org

Theory. The Center for Neighborhood Technology’s (CNT) mission is to:

Promote the development of more livable and sustainable communities. They strive to recognize, preserve, and enhance the value of hidden assets and undervalued resources inherent in our urban environment to make households, neighborhoods, and regions more efficient, more economically viable, and more equitable. (CNT website)

Application.

CNT’s organizational model is part think tank, part incubator. While the organization carries out complex research and analysis, it’s the application of that research for the benefit of real neighborhoods and real people, especially those most in need, that really drives the organization to excel. Sometimes this application is about changing markets, and other times public policies. Sometimes it requires changing both. (CNT website)

Resources.  The CNT website provides informational resources on a wide range of topics including: community wireless networks, web standards, housing and transportation costs, green building technology, and land reform. This research information will bolster any community presentation around these topics.

Process. For 30 years CNT has been developing:

various calculators, GIS analysis, market innovations and planning research that address the energy, transportation, natural resources and climate issues that communities face. CNT’s role is to: reveal the assets of urban regions and their communities; to craft approaches to maintaining and enhancing the value of these assets; and to capture the value of these assets for communities. (CNT website)

Results.  Over the years, CNT’s work, especially in the areas of energy, transportation,

 materials conservation and housing preservation, has paid off by fueling a generation of community development institutions and learning, garnering CNT a reputation as an economic innovator and leader in the field of creative sustainable development. (CNT website)

 

Churches

Theory. Churches can serve as important political institutions, developing “social capital,” connectivity, and civic engagement through their provision of social services in the face of declining government participation.

Application. In her research on the role of churches in community development Anna Greenberg found that, though wealthy Protestant churches provided many resources it is the Black and Catholic churches that have the greatest impact. It appears that the maintenance of “a strong commitment to service provision combined with political action” and the participation in the community that these entail is what has the greatest impact on community building. (Greenberg)

Resources. Churches can bring consistent long term leadership independent of the political structure. These leaders then inspire action and organize the resources of the community.

Process. Churches provided political information and participatory opportunities. They generate shared space and draw citizens into congregational activities.

Results. Churches are not equipped to take over the entire social services role that the government is now thrusting upon them. The churches who welcome this role are the very churches who provide services without participation and are the least effective community builders.

 

Circle Process                          26,600 Google links

Theory. This practice comes out of many Native traditions and has many variations. In all of them participants form a circle and speak their piece and are heard by others who are attentively and receptively listening. This process brings forth the “wisdom of the circle” which is greater than the sum of the wisdom of the individuals.

Application. Circle process is used in peacemaking circles, talking circles, storytelling circles, listening circles, restorative justice circles, sentencing circles and many other venues.

Resources.  The facilitator must have training appropriate to the type of circle. In a story telling circle participants my take turns facilitating, a listening circle may have a psychotherapist and a sentencing circle a judge. Participants must be willing to listen.

Process.  The facilitator may arrange the participants in the circle so those who most need to hear each other are across from each other. The circle will open with a sharing of agreements, any requests for additional agreements and agreement on the purpose. One person speaks at a time without interruption until everyone has had the opportunity to speak at which point everyone has another opportunity to speak. The facilitator guides the process until the purpose is accomplished.

Results.  Being heard is healing for most participants. Having the opportunity to speak without being interrupted is also healing. Groups frequently achieve consensus and agreements that last. Whereas the criminal justice system has a recidivism rate of 70% - 85% restorative justice circles have a recidivism rate of from 6% - 30%.

 

Citizen Deliberative Councils                    http://www.co-intelligence.org/CI-Practices.html

Theory. The differences between deliberative, consensus, and reflective councils are quite hazy. To deliberate is to take time and consider seriously. To consider seriously one must have the full range of facts, factors, perspectives, options, and consequences related to the matter at hand. Tom Atlee adds the distinction that a deliberative council has the intention of producing decisions, policies, recommendations or collective actions. Like a consensus council the interaction of participants deepens and broadens the conversation to better inform the public.

Application. This is an excellent way of involving the public in, and informing them about, an issue.

Resources. This process requires a facilitator, though not as highly trained as for a consensus council. Sources of accurate information about the issue are essential. These could be research material or expert witnesses.

Process. Tom Atlee describes the seven features that deliberative councils have in common as:

1) It is a real council. A face-to-face assembly. 2) It is a fair cross section. 3) It is very temporary. 4) It is made up of peer citizens. 5) It is to some extent official. 6) It is deliberative and balanced. 7) It generates a specific product. (Atlee ---.)

Participants are selected, convened at a preliminary session, and given information about the issue. They may meet for a block of time or occasionally over a period of time. They discuss the issue and can ask for additional information at any time. The council does not need to agree on a decision. The council composes a summary of its considerations, its conclusions and the reasoning behind those conclusions. The document is published and the council is available for interviews, discussion and/ or panels. 

Results. Because the participants are representative of the public, citizens know someone like them has considered all the available information and come to the councils conclusion. Again the conversation is deepening and broadening community.

 

Civic Practices Network                                                         http://www.cpn.org/

Civic Renewal Movement      http://www.cpn.org/crm/contemporary/index.html

Theory. Civic Practices Network (CPN) is a collaborative and nonpartisan project bringing

 together a diverse array of organizations and perspectives within the civic renewal movement. We share a commitment to bring practical methods for public problem solving into every community and institutional setting in America. We assume the responsibility of telling our stories, so that all citizens may have the opportunity to learn from what others are doing to renew their communities. And we have a common faith that we can revitalize our democracy to tackle the complex problems of the 21st century if we can broadly exchange and continually refine the civic wisdom of what works and what empowers citizens to work together. (CPN website)

Application. The resources available through CPN include guides to some of the processes listed here, some by the Study Circles Resource Center and National civic League. These would prove helpful in a variety of community building situations.

Resources. These resources could prove to be very useful to a citizens group without a facilitator which wants to use the practices.

Process. Our common mission is to tell the stories of civic innovation, share the practical

wisdom, and exchange the most effective tools available. Our affiliates provide case studies from which others can learn. We provide training manuals, "best practice" guides, and evaluative tools so that all of us can become more skillful about the public work that we do. We map innovative projects around the country, and help each other locate other civic assets and partners. And we engage each other about the big ideas that underlie our democratic heritage so that we can continue to renew it to meet the challenges of the 21st century. (http://www.cpn.org/about/whatiscpn.html)

Results. CPN is an excellent resource for community builders and a good promoter of this technology.

 

Community Change Initiatives - CCI  http://www.instituteforcommunitychange.org/

Theory. Opening their article on Community Economic Development and Community Change Hector Cordero-Guzman and Patricia Auspos of the Aspen Institute state:

A main operating assumption of Community Change Initiatives (CCIs) is that communities in general, and community-based organizations in particular, can improve economic opportunities and outcomes in their communities through community economic development. --- What is especially significant about community economic development as an approach is not just that it focuses on economic development in a specific neighborhood, but also that it focuses on the process of community building. ‘The “community” aspect of community economic development has three important dimensions. First, it is assumed that the community will play an active role in the economic development process and gain access, participation, and ownership of the economic activities in the locality. Second, it is argued that community development strategies and community-building activities can contribute to sustained economic development (and vice versa). Third, the field looks for outcomes relating to community building and community development in addition to economic outcomes. In this sense, community is treated as both an input and an output in community economic development. (Cordero 196)

Application. Poor communities have little control over their economic situation so economic development is very important. Yet without a community vision and the support of the community these efforts are apt to fail.

Resources. “Community residents and organizations are necessary for community economic development, (however) they are not sufficient to bring about the changes needed to reduce poverty and inequality.” (Cordero 196) Community change initiatives are resource intensive. It takes financing, business expertise, researchers, organizers, networkers, educators and the support of the community.

Process.  CCI’s are usually conceived by experts and funded by philanthropic organizations. Needs and resources are catalogued, economic and community development plans are created, resources are networked and funded, and if all is done well the endeavor should become self sustaining.

Results. In a study of the persistence of collaboration in community change initiatives Sridharan and Gillespie conclude that:

Collaborations are strongest and most vital during the planning phase of a new initiative and they peter out over the course of implementation (this) will come as no surprise to anyone engaged in community change work. (Kubisch 261)

In an article titled “Building Knowledge about Community Change Patricia Auspos and Anne Kubisch add:

Community-based approaches to improving outcomes for residents of poor neighborhoods have been shown to have great potential. In order for them to fulfill that potential, we need to learn how to do them better. (Auspos 34)

 

Communities of Practice – COP     

http://www.co-i-l.com/coil/knowledge-garden/cop/index.shtml

Theory. The Collaborative Visualization Project offers this definition:

 "Communities of Practice" is a phrase coined by researchers who studied the ways in which people naturally work and play together. In essence, communities of practice are groups of people who share similar goals and interests. In pursuit of these goals and interests, they employ common practices, work with the same tools and express themselves in a common language. Through such common activity, they come to hold similar beliefs and value systems. (http://www.co-i-l.com/coil/knowledge-garden/cop/definitions.shtml)

Because of their commonalities it is easier for individuals in a COP to relate to each other. At the same time there is a tendency to form an “in group” and an “out group.” 

Application. Because the members of a community of practice all know a lot about one field and have a common language and culture, trust is more easily established. This may encourage greater risk and more innovation. A CoP is also a way to avoid information overload while collectively knowing a lot within a well defined area.

Resources. Because communities of practice depend so heavily on information; access to quality information, the expertise to process that information and the means of communicating it are essential. Personal rapport facilitates the transfer of knowledge in addition to the information.

Process. Many communities of practice are virtual communities or professional communities. Most recent research is in the healthcare field where a mix of virtual and real community can give the student access to a combination of information and experience in a context that supports the development of the student’s identity as a healthcare practitioner.

Results. Experience in a community of practice facilitates a learning “to be” as contrasted with learning “about.” Several researchers including Paul Duguid describe the down side:

To recap, the argument proposes a theory of knowledge acquisition rooted not in the epistemological stocks of individual heads, but in the flow of practice within communities. Communities, it holds, have emergent properties that, while they are no doubt the outcome of individual actions, amount to more than the sum of those actions and more than the amortization of transaction costs. If this is right, then CoP theories may not fit well with approaches to work and knowledge that, at least on the surface, appear congenial. --- CoP theory points to unseen boundaries—boundaries shaped by practice—that divide knowledge networks from one another.  (Duguid 115)

 

Conscious Evolution                http://www.co-intelligence.org/Evolution.html


Theory.Whether we are aware of it or not, we have a lot to do with how evolution unfolds,

especially right here on Earth. Evolution has given us a special kind of consciousness, one that creates -- and is thoroughly conditioned by -- our languages, cultures, stories, and built environments. This consciousness and its companion social systems and technologies have awesome power to shape the world. We are just beginning to grow into a mature way of manifesting it in the world. Part of that maturing process is learning the dynamics through which evolution does its transformational work. Understanding those dynamics, we can apply them -- intentionally and wisely -- to transform ourselves and our social systems. (Atlee)

 

Consensus Process                            http://www.consensus.net/ocac2.html

Theory. There are many practices that use consensus. The practice is anchored in our indigenous past and more recently in Quaker practice. “It assumes that everyone has a piece of the truth and uses facilitation to help the group make productive use of that insight.” (Atlee)

Application. Consensus process is “widely used in intentional communities and activist groups.” (Atlee) This process an effective way to work with groups that make decisions then do not implement the solution, either because no one has the commitment to take action or because someone blocks the action. It is an excellent way to achieve “buy in.”

Resources.  This is a high commitment process. It will not work if some of the stakeholders are not willing to come to the table. Tom Atlee describes the type of participant needed:

The ideal consensus participant is cooperative and speaks their piece of the truth on behalf of the whole group. They discern what is key for the group and what is merely their personal view, and they let go of the latter. They assume their share of responsibility for creating a safe, productive meeting. (Atlee)

He goes on to describe the facilitator needed:

The facilitator (who has broad, loosely defined powers to frame the emerging meaning for the group and to order the traffic of discussion) monitors participants' behavior to help them play their cooperative roles in surfacing truths on behalf of the group. (Atlee)

 

Process.  Generally, participants keep talking, considering the question at hand, the situation, conditions, feelings, impacts, consequences, and brainstorming possible solutions until the group finds a solution that everyone can support. “Success = decisions that have staying power because the deliberations were so thorough, wise and inclusive that everyone involved is willing to engage fully in their implementation.” (Atlee)

Results.  Solutions arrived at by consensus have a greater probability of long term effectiveness because of the resultant group ownership and the lack of a dissenting faction to undermine the solution.

 

Citizen Consensus Councils   http://www.co-intelligence.org/CI-Practices.html

Theory. A citizen consensus council is a microcosm of a larger population where citizens dialogue to deep agreement about issues of common concern. Participants are representative of the diversity of the population, participate as individuals and bring their breakthrough experience back to the population. To find common ground underlying their differences participants must go deeper into themselves and the issue, and this broadens their perspective.

Application. There are a variety of forms of consensus councils. All of them are an effective ways to process information and issues in a facilitated small group setting and make the results accessible to the general population.

Resources. A facilitator trained in consensus is essential. A representative group with the time and the commitment to meet until consensus is reached is needed as well. When consensus is reached, an effective channel of communication is needed.

Process.  It is usually a group of 12-24 diverse citizens selected at random from (or to be

demographically representative of) their organization, community, country, etc. A citizen consensus council deliberates about issues concerning the population from which it was selected, and is professionally facilitated to a consensus about how to address those issues. Its final statement is released both to appropriate authorities and to the larger population it represents, usually through the media. After that, the council usually disbands, just as a jury does when its work is done. (Atlee)

Results. The dynamics of diversity and consensus draw forth the “people’s wisdom’ in proportion to the depth of people’s perspectives.

 

Danish Citizen Technology Panel a form of Consensus Conference

http://www.co-intelligence.org/P-DanishTechPanels.html

http://www.tekno.dk/subpage.php3?article=468&toppic=kategori12&language=uk

 

Several times a year, the Danish government convenes a panel of fifteen ordinary citizens scientifically selected to represent the diversity of the Danish population and helps them study and recommend policy guidelines for a particular technology.  (In 1999, for example, a citizen panel investigated genetic engineering of food.)  Citizen panel members read briefing papers and then discuss with organizers what questions they have and which experts -- from across the spectrum of opinion on the subject -- they want to testify before them.  They interview these selected experts -- who, as Frances Moore Lappe notes, may be surprised to find themselves on tap to the citizenry, not on top of the decision-making process.  When the citizen panel is satisfied, they are professionally facilitated to a consensus statement about what should be done about the technology they've just studied.  Their findings are presented to the government and to the press. (Atlee)

 

Consensus Organizing                                      http://www.consensusorganizing.com/

http://www.co-intelligence.org/ConsensusOrganizing.html

In the practice called consensus organizing, community organizers learn all they can about the "downtown interests" (the local powerholders) and about the community and its grassroots leaders. The downtown interests and grassroots community leaders often oppose each other and tell themselves and their associates stereotyped stories in which their opponent plays an ineffective or malevolent role. Consensus organizers try to identify a project -- such as a job training program -- that is of interest to both the community leaders and downtown interests. Then they engage the parties in real dialogue about that program only, leading to productive collaborations and new relationships. Later, those relationships can be used to make real progress on other community issues, since the stereotyped us-vs-them stories have been replaced with a belief in the possibility of shared exploration and shared benefits. (Atlee)

 

Cooperatives                 http://www.uwcc.wisc.edu/info/uwcc_pubs/wiCoops07.pdf

Theory. Co-op businesses can diversify and strengthen the local economic community.

Profits tend to remain in the local economy because they are returned to members. The cooperative also can be a source of local employment, further strengthening the community. (uwcc)

Application. A cooperative business may provide a solution to a common need for products or

services that is going unmet. Its ownership structure allows the coop to maintain its focus on meeting member needs, not maximizing returns for owners or investors. (uwcc)

Resources.  Adequate financial resources are essential for the formation of a coop. The coop may retain a portion of the profit from goods or services sold and credit that investment to the members equity account. Members may purchase common stock or membership certificates. The coop may sell preferred stock to members and non-members. The coop may allocate equity (credit profits back to the members account) or reinvest the profit in the coop.

Process.  The members are the foundation of a cooperative: they organized it, they own it,

and their needs are the reason it exists. The board of directors is composed of members who are elected to ensure that the cooperative’s activities are carried out to benefit all members. The directors are legally responsible for the cooperative, and are trustees for the members’ equity. The management of a cooperative is hired to carry out the objectives and policies adopted by the board. The employees, as in other business firms, are hired to carry out the tasks needed to operate the cooperative. (uwcc)

Results.  Co-op businesses can diversify and strengthen the local economic community. Profits

 tend to remain in the local economy because they are returned to members. The cooperative also can be a source of local employment, further strengthening the community.

Members’ active participation in a cooperative can benefit a community’s civic life. The empowering experience of self-determination through cooperation provides a perspective and set of skills that can be applied to other community activities. (uwcc)

 

The Way of Council a form of circle process

http://www.ojaifoundation.org/Content/council_intro.php

Theory. Council is the practice of speaking and listening from the heart. Through

compassionate, heartfelt expression and empathic, non-judgmental listening, Council inspires a non-hierarchical form of deep communication that reveals a group's vision and purpose. (ojai)

Application. Council offers effective means of resolving conflicts and for discovering the

deeper, often unexpressed needs of individuals and organizations. Council provides a comprehensive means for co-visioning and making decisions in a group context. Council is about our personal and collaborative story. (ojai)

Resources.  The council differs from circle process in that Native American ritual is more predominant. A strong leader is essential. The willingness of participants to participate fully, to honor others and to be vulnerable to their inner voice determines the effectiveness of council.

Process.  Council opens with all participants in a circle using a ritual such as smudging with sage, drumming, music, singing, dedication to a purpose, or individually choosing a value. The leader offers the topic, issue, or business question, and places the talking piece in the center of the circle. Participants who wish to speak to the issue take the talking piece and speak until they are finished at which time they return the talking piece to the center of the circle. No one is allowed to interrupt or comment during this time. The circle continues until everyone is heard and ends with another ritual. John Lawry summarizes the council process in “How Circles can Change Learning,” his review of “The Way of Council” by Jack Zimmerman:

The essence of the council process is what the authors call the “four intentions of council.” The first intention is “speaking from the heart.” This is probably the most challenging intention because it is the opposite of how we are accustomed to speaking in academe, which is from the head. The second intention is “listening from the heart.” It is the kind of listening the Quakers call “devout” (and has been adapted by groups such

as Alcoholics Anonymous). The third intention is being of “lean expression.”  Finally, the fourth intention is “spontaneity,” to not be rehearsing while someone is speaking and to trust that the wisdom will come forth. (Lawry 30)

Results.  The practice of council “helps school children to build self-esteem; to deepen their communication with each other, parents and teachers; and to clarify their personal values and develop cultural tolerance.” (ojai) It is just as applicable to business executives. Tom Atlee notes:

Even the simplest, most unsophisticated circles are experienced as revolutionary by people who've known little more than the hectic, banal, adversarial or repressed communication modes typical of our mainstream culture. (Atlee)

 

Despair and Empowerment Work                          http://www.joannamacy.net

Theory. Many of us are paralyzed by fear and powerlessness in the face of the threat of nuclear war or terrorism or peak oil. Despair and empowerment work was innovated by Buddhist scholar and deep ecology practitioner Joanna Macey to get through the denial that disempowers us. “Fully confronting the issue might come as something of a relief, a revelation even, as long as we can also see how to change, to imagine some practical projects we can embark on. Macy's techniques have found widespread use across several continents and contexts.” (Fenderson)

Application. Macy has used this work to help people deal with the cold war, the nuclear threat, the aftermath of Chernobyl, the decimation of forests, and peak oil.

Resources.  This one day or more workshop requires facilitators trained in psychotherapy and a location that would encourage emoting.

Process.  John Steiner of Boulder CO uses the following process:

First, before a meeting, people read some shared written material and/or watch a video and/or listen to a tape, etc., about one or more major threats. Then a series of actions are done -- in one or more sessions -- as follows:
l.) Everyone lists all the possible assaults they can think of on the environment and life as we know it, including the threat featured in the introductory material.
2.) They are asked: What are your greatest fears about these threats? They go around the circle at least once -- and more if required.
3.) They are led through a guided visualization designed to evoke their dreams and hopes.
4.) They explore "What is your life purpose?"
At that point, most people are ready to move into operational mode. (Atlee)

Results.  International social justice activist Ruth Rosenhek said:

Despair and Empowerment work affirms that our feelings matter and it allows our natural intelligence to flow. We then remember that intuitive feelings have been around a lot longer than the thinking typified by strategic planning. Intuition and feelings helped our ancestors to survive for millions of years. If we acknowledge our intuition and feelings, we are better able to find solutions and act in positive ways. (Rosenhek)

 

Dialogue / Bohmian Dialogue         / Open Dialogue / Narrative Based Dialogue

                                                         http://www.david-bohm.net/dialogue/

Theory. "...it is proposed that a form of free dialogue may well be one of the most effective

 ways of investigating the crisis which faces society, and indeed the whole of human nature and consciousness today. Moreover, it may turn out that such a form of free exchange of ideas and information is of fundamental relevance for transforming culture and freeing it of destructive misinformation, so that creativity can be liberated."
(David Bohm)

Application. Dialogue is most appropriate for a casual community building setting where there is no pressure to follow a topic or resolve an issue. Dialogue may begin with a topic but must be free to go where it will.

Resources.  Facilitation may be designated or shared. The primary responsibilities of the facilitator are to “maintain a shared center,” keep people involved, and give everyone a chance to speak. (Atlee)

Process.  Dialogue may take many forms and have different rules. In all its forms it is a collaboration to find common ground, understanding, enlarge the participants point of view, reveal assumptions, cause introspection, and create an openness to being wrong and an openness to change. Popcorn dialogue is when people speak when moved to do so, with a limited number of turns until everyone has spoken. The group may use a talking piece, which may be an hourglass game timer to limit the length of time one speaks. The facilitator can give everyone an equal number of pennies, they put one in a bowl every time they speak and when they run out they cannot speak again until everyone else has used all their pennies.

In a 1990 conversation quantum physicist David Bohm said:

The word "dialogue" has many meanings and we are giving it a particular meaning. In this Dialogue we are not trying to make our points prevail or, if we are, we need to look at that. Our challenge is to see when each of us is trying to prevail, because if anybody prevails it means the dialogue has failed. Or, if we simply agree, the dialogue may also have failed because this means that we haven't gone deeply enough into the process or into the consciousness behind it. What begins to transform culture into something quite different is that ultimately the frustration or anger or rage or hatred that arises can lead to a crisis in which these feelings are transformed giving rise to impersonal fellowship - to thinking together and participating as if we were one body - by establishing a common consciousness. The group then becomes a kind of instrument of consciousness which can function differently. (Bohm)

Results.  In a study of two, narrative based dialogue projects Professor Boyd Rossing of the University of Wisconsin found: The sharing of stories does impact participants personally

 in powerful and emotional ways. Listening to stories of others does yield new insights and a sense of human connection or community. The dialogue format does yield a safe context in which these exchanges can occur. Participants value the dialogue process and results. (Rossing 739)

 

Dynamic Facilitation                                         http://www.tobe.net/

Theory. Dynamic facilitation stimulates, focuses and combines people's creative energy at a whole-system level. It evokes out-of-the-box creative problem-solving, a spirit of community, coherence, energy and fun. It creates an atmosphere conducive to the transformation of people and problems. (Atlee) It achieves this magic by eliciting a nonlinear, heartfelt, transformational quality of thinking called "choice-creating" — vs. "decision-making" or "problem-solving" or "creative problem-solving."

Application. Use dynamic facilitation to facilitate important meetings, solve “impossible” problems, transform the organization, dialogue, conflict resolution etc. “It has been picked up by activist and community groups because of its capacity to handle "impossible problems" and "difficult people" and to creatively use conflict.” (Atlee)

Resources.  The entire process is dependent on the facilitator. There are few restrictions on who can participate. Funds to pay the facilitator will be essential.

Process.  Dynamic facilitation is a "quantum art," in which the qualities of presence, trust, and openness held by the facilitator play a key role in the process. (Atlee) Rather than trying to explain or teach what is needed, the facilitator attends to the process of change and trusts that things will self-organize. (Rough 1) The facilitator supports dynamic change:

 

Managed change

Dynamic change

Order from

by someone (extrinsic forces)

·         Build it/Do it ... with no mistakes

  • Closed boundaries
  • Mostly stable with periodic disorder

within (intrinsic energy)

  • Explore/trial and error
  • Open boundaries

Dynamic ... between chaos and order

Thinking

Stay rational ... avoid the unconscious mind

  • Decide on goals
  • Discern and analyze
  • Stop things from going wrong

 

Be creative ... work with the unconscious mind

  • Energy driven ... wants and bothers
  • Generate and synthesize
  • Seek true quality

Leadership

Manage to get results

  • Track results
  • Use extrinsic motivation (rewards)
  • Static process ... step by step

Facilitate the process

  • Use milestones and reflect on progress
  • Rely on intrinsic motivation ... (mission, vision)
  • Dynamic process ... the flow

Orientation

Stop things from going wrong

  • There are objective constraints
  • All is measurable
  • Eliminate chaos

Help things go right

  • Expect breakthroughs
  • Measuring everything can mess things up
  • Some chaos is essential

 

Results.  It is not easy to let go of what has worked for so long -- Acknowledging the reality of

 self-organizing change undermines the old paradigm by which we think. But the paradigm shift is happening anyway -- A general awareness is growing that the self-organizing dynamic not only exists but it is primary. In the end, we all must let go of control and facilitate dynamically. (Rough)

 

Face –to-face Deliberation               http://virtualagora.org/researchpapers.html

Theory. Deliberation allows for the mass public to think in the public interest, to become more

 informed, to discover its capacities to solve public problems, to become engaged as well as informed, to decide on the merits rather than on the basis of group psychology and to arrive at non-arbitrary expressions of collective political will. (Fishkin 21)

Application, Resources and Process are pretty well laid out in the following table:

Prepared by Joe Goldman and Lars Hasselblad Torres, AmericaSpeaks © 2004

Approaches to Face-to-face Deliberation in the U.S.

 

Organization     Approach        Distinguishing Characteristics                     Notable Examples

1.

America Speaks

 

21st Century Town

Meeting

 

· Large-scale forums (100 – 5,000) engage citizens in public decision making processes at the local, regional and national levels of

governance. Dialogue is supported by trained facilitators, keypad polling, networked-laptop computers and (at times) interactive television.

· Demographically representative groups of citizens are recruited through a variety of means, including grassroots organizing and the media. Major stakeholders are engaged in the process and a clear link to decision making is established from the start.

 

· Neighborhood Action: Washington, DC Strat. Plan and Budget, 1999- 2003

· Listening to the City: Rebuilding Lower Manhattan, 2002

 

· Americans Discuss Social Security, 1997-1999

 

For more information, visit

www.americaspeaks.org

 

2.

Center for

Deliberative

Polling

 

Deliberative Poll

· Dialogues (2-3 days) between a random sample of citizens, issue experts and public officials are televised to reframe an issue in terms that reflect the views of a representative, informed public.

· Surveys before and after the dialogue measure the change in opinion that results from the deliberation. The resulting changes in opinion represent the conclusions the public would reach, if people had a good opportunity to become more informed and more engaged by the issues.

· Seems important to note also that participants spend a significant amount of time in small group conversations that “frame” their interactions with “experts” e.g. that’s where the questions emerge

and much in the way of dialogue emerges, if not opinion change.

 

· By the People: America’s Place in the World, 2003

· Australian Deliberative Poll on Aboriginal Reconciliation, 2001 This seems incongruous if we are talking about US models…maybe Texas Deliberative Poll on energy or the Connecticut Poll on

Municipal Tax revenue sharing?

· U.S. National Issues Convention, 1996

 

For more information, visit www.la.utexas.edu/research/delpol/

 

3.

Jeffer-son

Center

 

Citizen Jury

· A randomly selected panel of about 18 citizens meets for 4-5 days to examine an issue of public significance, serving as a microcosm of the public. Jurors are paid a stipend for their time.

· Jury members hear from a variety of expert witnesses and deliberate together on the issue in private sessions.

· On the final day of their moderated hearings, the members of the Citizens Jury present their recommendations to the public.

 

· Citizen Jury on Global Climate Change, USEPA, 2002

· Penn. U.S. Senate Election, 1992

· Presidential Election Issues, 1976

 

 

For more information, visit

www.jefferson-center.org/

 

4.

National

Charrette

Institute

 

Dynamic Planning

Charrette

 

· A multi-day process consisting of a series feedback loops between public workshops and a design studio. A multi-disciplinary design team develops alternative plans based on public feedback and presents those plans back to the public at workshops. Over the course of at least four consecutive days, the plans are refined and

developed further.

· Generally used for urban and regional planning processes. None of the other methods state the policy arena or “niche” in which they’ve been tested most (e.g. CJ and environment)

 

· Dynamic Planning Trainings for the New York Dept. of Transportation,

Arizona Dept. of Transportation,

and the US Navy in addition to hundreds of individuals in public

trainings Year(s)?

 

 

For more information, visit:

www.charretteinstitute.org

 

5.

National

Issues Forums

Institute

 

National Issues

Forum

· Structured, local dialogues that occur across the country around a critical national policy issue. Dialogues are moderated by trained NIF facilitators.

· Non-partisan “issue books” provide background information and frame the discussion in terms of three policy options.

· Forum results are presented to national and local leaders.

 

· Terrorism: What Should We Do Now? 2002

· Money and Politics, 2001

· Mission Uncertain: Reassessing America’s Global Role, 1996

 

For more information, visit:

www.nifi.org

 

6.

Public

Conver-sations

Project

 

Constructive

Conver-sations

 

· Customized, structured dialogues to foster new relationships among polarized groups. Both single session “citizen dialogues” and multisession projects. Often small groups (6-8) but sometimes large with break out.

· Much attention paid to pre-meeting preparation, collaborative and appreciative stance of facilitators, clarity of purpose, and careful crafting of questions.

 

· Ongoing Dialogues with Pro-Choice and Pro-Life Leaders (1995-2001)

· Sexual Orientation and the Church (1998-2003)

· Maine Forest Biodiversity Project (1994-1999)

 

For more information, visit:

www.publicconversations.org/

 

7.

Study Circles

Resource

Center

 

Community-wide

Study Circles

 

· Multiple groups of 8-15 people within a community or region meet regularly over a period of months to discuss a designated issue. At the end of the process, all participants take part in a community

meeting, called an Action Forum, to create strategies for the future.

· The objective is often to help people become more active in their neighborhoods and communities by engaging them in informed discussions.

· How Should We Move Forward

After 9/11, 2002

· Balancing Justice in New York,

1998

· Race Relations, Lima, OH, 1993

 

For more information, visit:

www.studycircles.org

8.

View-point

Learning

 

ChoiceWork

Dialogue

 

· Day-long (8-hour) structured dialogues in which up to 40 randomly selected participants learn to see an issue from viewpoints other than their own. Together they identify what choices they are willing

to support and grapple with the tradeoffs they are willing to accept.

· Materials present values-based scenario in citizen language, not as policy choices, and are used to work through the hard choices as participants define a shared vision, practical steps towards that vision and a set of tradeoffs they could accept. I’m unclear, but don’t “experts” or decision-makers weigh in at some point?

 

· Citizen Dialogues on Canada’s Health Care SystemAgain, keep

focus in US for clarity?

· Citizen Dialogues on the Housing Crisis in San Mateo County

· Citizen Dialogues on the Canadian Social Contract

 

For more information, visit:

www.viewpointlearning.org

 

 

 

 

 

 

Results. Deliberation does not necessarily lead to polarization. The results of a study by

 Michael Morrell support claims that deliberation will not  necessarily lead to direct, positive effects on citizens’ internal political efficacy, but they also highlight the likelihood that face-to-face deliberation can lead citizens to feel more competent in their deliberative abilities. (Morrell)

 

Family Group Decision Making / Family Group Conferencing                                         http://www.americanhumane.org/site/PageServer?pagename=pc_fgdm

Theory. The term family group decision making (FGDM) was coined to emphasize that the

family group, made up of the immediate family and its relatives, friends, and other close supports, would decide what steps needed to be taken to stop the maltreatment. The family group conferencing model was adapted from New Zealand. (Pinnell 137)

In the United States, interest in family group conferencing can be attributed to the emergence of family-centered and strengths based practices, the philosophical shift that protecting children is a shared responsibility among child protection agencies, communities, and families, and federal policies supporting family involvement in case planning (Merkel-Holguin, 1998; National ChildWelfare Resource Center for Family Centered Practice, 2002). (Merkel 159)

Application. Family Group Conferences are used in cases of domestic violence, child abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, and teen delinquency. They are used by social service agencies and the criminal justice system.

Resources.  This process requires a trained facilitator, possibly a co-facilitator, participation of the referring agency, voluntary participation of the person of concern, their family, a few members of the extended family, and a couple community members. Community participation is essential.

Process.  There are five stages in a typical family group conference. First the concern is referred for conferencing. Then the conference coordinator or facilitator and co-facilitator pre-conference all participants, finding a time and neutral location that works, going over the purpose, content and desired results. The third stage is the conference itself which is opened in the tradition of the family. The facilitator establishes ground rules and with the referring agency presents all the information about the concern. The authorities leave the room and the family and community develop a plan to repair the harm. In the fourth stage the authorities come back into the room and review the plan to assure that it is feasible and fulfills all their requirements. Everyone must agree to support the final agreement for repair. The final stage is the follow up to support fulfillment of agreements and completion of the plan.

Results.  A tenet of family group conferencing is that the broader family, community, and

 state—collaborating together—will generate more workable, comprehensive plans. This practice supports the quest for democracy by cultivating and respecting the various

stakeholders’ voices and perspectives. (Merkel 169)

 

Family and Neighborhoods Initiative

http://www.wkkf.org/Pubs/CustomPubs/CPtoolkit/cptoolkit/Sec1-Building.htm

Theory. The Family and Neighborhoods Initiative built upon existing comprehensive

community-based strategies aimed at:

  • keeping the well-being of families at the forefront of community intervention efforts.
  • increasing the capacity of families and neighborhoods to enhance their own well- being.
  • simultaneously empowering both families and their neighborhoods.
  • enhancing the relationships between families and neighborhoods. (Kellogg)

Application. These strategies have been developed to inform public policy and can also be applied by all social service agencies.

Resources.  Among the recommendations that came out of the Kellogg Foundations Kalamazoo conference were: Public commitments to basic family and neighborhood viability must be met

and fought for by all. Community consensus must be reached about accepting only money that allows them to do what is collectively valued, not what funders want. Don’t make programs lie to get funds. Accept that, in the current climate, programs must use some new grant funding for basic maintenance. Help agencies get access to good research. (Kellogg)

Process. Family and neighborhood development is sustainable when at the individual, family, neighborhood, and institutional levels of change we:

  • Listen – to families and those who work closely with them.
  • Include – meaningful participation and mutual respect.
  • Learn - in a process of collective reflection, action, and evaluation.
  • Negotiate – ask for change while respecting where individuals or organizations are at.
  • Hold accountable – we must create neighborhood-based governance.
  • Engage - Engaging in honest dialogue about what is right, what is wrong, and what needs to be done – with all relevant stakeholders – is essential to maintaining hope.
  • Reward – people need a chance to go out and use their strengths, then understand what occurred and examine why.
  • Demand - new ways of acting from ourselves, from others, and from ever-widening circles of systems.
  • Change - being willing to break the rules first – to do what has to be done, then to redesign the system accordingly. (Kellogg)                                   

Results.  The Family and Neighborhoods Initiative learned from the pioneering efforts of seven

 local groups and organizations working in ten communities. These organizations constructed new program models of family and neighborhood responsiveness. In each of the communities, local groups pioneered programs that built upon their experiences strengthening families and neighborhoods. While none of the communities would lay claim to creating a fully comprehensive community-based model, they all helped to identify and develop the tools for building community partnerships. (Kellogg)

 

Fishbowl

http://www.bonner.org/resources/modules/modules_pdf/BonCurFishbowlonCommunity.pdf

Theory. In a fishbowl, whether the center is composed of alterations from one side of an argument to the other, or an evolving discussion the periphery has an opportunity to hear differing perceptions without the risk involved in active participation.

Application. The fishbowl can effectively discover community issues, resistance, and capacity. It is a good way to engage the community, inform, build alliances and build consensus. It is a good practice to engage an under informed and under involved community.

Resources.  The event must be well publicized. Depending on the anticipated attendance, a large open space with a microphone is essential. The facilitator or facilitators should be experienced if the issue is conflictual in nature.

Process.  Participants should be preconferenced and provided access to information on the issue at hand. Set an inner circle of 5 – 10 chairs, an outer circle and audience space. Select willing participants from one side of an issue or who feel more strongly or are better informed and place them in the inner circle facing each other. The outer circle is composed of individuals who feel strongly about the other side of the issue or who would want to be in the inner circle. The inner circle discusses the issue amongst themselves for 15 – 30 minutes. Then they trade places with the outer circle who then discuss the other side of the issue. With a more neutral issue there can be an empty seat in the inner circle which is filled by someone from the outer circle when they feel moved. At this time someone, self selected, in the inner circle must step out to the audience and an audience member can step into the outer circle and they keep cycling.

Results.  Fishbowls can make a large group feel that their viewpoint has been represented in

the discussion, even when they have not themselves had any input. Because they hear and see other people's contributions, they know whether the issues that are important to them have been considered. As well, participants and observers will leave the fishbowl process with a greater understanding of the range of opinions and experiences that exist within their community on a particular issue or proposal. This provides community groups with options for building on commonalities and sharing resources. (http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/DSE/wcmn203.nsf/LinkView/A6EA88449B246311CA25708100208CDACBCEB7EC76E11811CA257091000C611A)

 

From the Four Directions: People Everywhere Leading the Way

http://www.fromthefourdirections.org/resources.html

A great listing of organizational resources including many of those listed here.

 

Future Search (a.k.a. "search")

http://www.futuresearch.net/method/whatis/history.cfm  

Theory. A future search," write Weisbord and future search co-developer Sandra Janoff, "is

 a large group planning meeting that brings a 'whole system' into the room to work on a task-focused agenda.... In a future search, people have a chance to take ownership of their past, present, and future, confirm their mutual values, and commit to action plans grounded in reality. (Atlee)

Application. This practice is an excellent way to involve a cross section of all the stakeholders in a large community in designing their future. It can reveal concerns, capture values and vision and precipitate action.

Resources.  Because the process can involve hundreds of people the resources needed are substantial. From the publicity and facility to the facilitation team all are writ big.

Process.  This is a three day process. The first session reveals history, trends and their relationship. In the second session stakeholder groups describe what they are and will be doing about the trends they see. They list what they are proud of and sorry about concerning their actions. They explore ideal scenarios and find common ground. The third session stakeholder groups define the actions they will take and share those with the larger group. The entire process is summarized and publicized.

Results.  Simply by changing the conditions under which people interact, future search

procedures enable participants to bridge barriers of culture, class, age, gender, ethnicity, power, status and hierarchy to work together as peers on tasks of mutual concern. Facilitators simply help participants self-organize. (Atlee)

 

Group Silence                        http://www.community4me.com/silentcb.html

http://www.co-intelligence.org/P-silence.html

Theory. Quakers see silence filled with Spirit. Holding a space of palpable silence allows Spirit or collective wisdom to reveal itself. Silence allows emotions to surface and be healed.

Application. Silence is an excellent way to open a meeting, to refocus attention, to allow emotions to cool and minds to become present, or to integrate experience and close a meeting.

Resources.  All this process needs is the willingness of the group.

Process.  Participants agree on how long they will hold the silence, no one speaks unless they absolutely have to. Going into the silence with a theme, a question or a potential solution can be a powerful way to test and explore.

Results. An individual or a group that has the courage to work through what comes up

(in the silence) will be deeper and richer for it. And a group that practices silence together regularly -- even five or ten minutes before and/or after each meeting, will be deeper and richer for it. (Atlee)

 

Healthy Cities – Healthy Communities 

                                  http://www.healthycities.org/overview.html

http://www.well.com/user/bbear/healthy_communities.html

Theory. The UN World Health Organization recognizes that it takes healthy people to have the energy to build community and in turn it takes a healthy community to have healthy people.

Application. "Healthy Toronto 2000" inspired Ilona Kickbush at the the World Health

 Organization's European office, and other organizations, such as the Healthcare Forum, the Western Consortium for Public Health, and the National Civic League in the United States, to spread the idea. In seminars and workshops around the world, Dr. Duhl and Dr. Hancock have helped scores of cities take the first steps toward envisioning and creating their futures. (Well.com)

Resources. This practice depends on knowledgeable organizers with the resources to publicize and convene a conference then publicize the results. The Change Project notes:

Is this easy and neat? No, it is both difficult and messy. It's not a Sunday picnic in the park. It's long, political, and human, full of talk, with lots of walking the streets, lots of meetings, lots of gathering information, lots of listening. It's hard because it strikes directly to the heart of what it takes to live together in cities and communities at the end of the 20th Century. (well.com)

Process. The movement's organizing method is rather simple: people in Barcelona (or Calcutta,

 or Sacramento) invite in some outsiders to help them. In one conference or a series of them, the local committee and the outside facilitators gather together everyone in the community who can make a difference - media, politicians, labor union bosses, educational leaders, representatives of the unrepresented, business leaders, community organizers - and ask them, "What would make this a healthier place?" The answer may center around jobs or housing, or the environment, or crime, clean drinking water, better food, even transportation. The consensus is often surprisingly strong. Having found common ground in things that everyone agrees must change, the organizers then set about to help the people in the room discover what they can do, working together, to change it. (well.com)

Results. The idea works because it attracts the enormous personal energy and resources of

the community. The people of the community "own" every part of it. It reflects their values. It focuses on their lives. It gives them power and permission to make a difference in their lives. It gives them a lever and a place to stand. (well.com)

 

Holistic Management                                http://www.holisticmanagement.org

Theory. Holistic Management is primarily focused on land management, which is crucial to community building. The principle, to include all stakeholders and resources in deciding on a quality of life statement, transfers to other realms as well.

Application. Even if holistic management is applied only to the land, because this influences the local agricultural economy it will impact all aspects of the community.

Resources. This practice involves the entire community, human, plant, animal, mineral and their economic relationships. The organizer needs to get all the stakeholders to the table and have enough knowledge of local resources to assure that they are included in the considerations.

Process. After getting the people involved to the table the organizer facilitates their consideration of current resources, physical, social, economic, and intellectual. The group creates a quality of life statement that includes all of these considerations and future resources. Then they combine all these elements to create a statement that then serves as the guide for future decisions.

Results. “Allan Savory has been primarily focusing this technique on land management and has developed a variety of complementary tools for land managers. However, a huge variety of groups have benefited from this technique.” (Atlee)

 

Institute for Local Self Reliance                http://www.ilsr.org/20yrhist.html

Theory. The Institute for Local Self Reliance (ILSR) is a small organization with a remarkable

 track record for breaking new ground in promoting sustainable communities (ILSR.org)

ILSR has researched the economic impact of energy expenditures, fast food franchises, and solid waste incineration. They have researched the potential of solar energy, decentralized energy production, solid waste recovery, biofuels, and plant derived plastics. Recent research indicates big box stores create increased auto travel and take money out of the community.

Application. This research has proven valuable in the development of sustainability studies for many communities. ILSR helped with Minnesota’s 1993 sustainability study.

Resources. This is a research and publication intensive practice requiring substantial resources.

Process. ILSR’s website proclaims: We are the go-to source for cities that are fighting against

 absentee owned, big box retail, fielding scores of questions each week from communities around the nation. Our resources can help you make your hometown character shine. (http://www.newrules.org/)

Results. “We've already worked with more than 100 communities to develop policies to nurture their locally-owned businesses.” (Newrules.org)

 

Intentional Communities / Cohousing                         http://www.ic.org/

                        http://www.cohousing.org/default.aspx                     http://fic.ic.org

Theory.Intentional Community is an inclusive term for ecovillages, cohousing, residential land trusts, communes, student co-ops, urban housing cooperatives, and other projects where people strive together with a common vision.” (ic.org) “Striving together with a common vision” could be a definition of community or of community building.

Application. Most communities could become “intentional” with a little visioning work.

Resources. These are long term, resource and commitment intensive projects, requiring innumerable meetings, community building processes, financial and labor resources and ultimately a strong desire for personal growth.

Process. Usually these communities start with a few friends who want more than their current living situation offers. They get together and start talking about their vision and what to do about it. Over a period of years, 2 – 15, a group with a common vision and the resources to build it comes together. Some who want to join don’t fit and drop out, the rest learn to communicate and work together. Ultimately they purchase property, design, and remodel or build. Living spaces face a common area, there is a common building for community gatherings, vehicles are usually kept to the perimeter, there may be a community garden, community laundry, community meals, a community enterprise, community child care, etc.

Results.  A typical response comes from Yehudit, of the Pleasant Hill cohousing community:

Over the years I have lived here, I have had some difficult moments, but no regrets. I like and respect all of my neighbors, and feel that I can be real with them. I love the spontaneous social activities that happen because we're all here. I am fascinated and challenged by the consensus decision-making process. I continue to hold to the vision of living in a creative, resourceful community where there is a commitment to resolve conflict peacefully, transcend differences, and create win-win solutions. As an older single woman, I also enjoy living in a multi-generational community that includes children. (http://www.phch.org/member.htm)

 

Listening projects                                                            http://www.listeningproject.org/

Theory. When we truly listen to people, no matter how different they are from us, we increase

 communication and mutual understanding. This can be the foundation of an effective, heart-centered community organizing process. (listeningproject.org)

Application. The Listening Project is an organizing tool for nonviolent social change, especially

 useful in communities where conflict and disempowerment weakens efforts toward community development, justice, peace or protecting the environment. (listeningproject.org)

Resources. A Listening Project is a big undertaking that requires organizational skills and

 resources. It is often beneficial for an organization to broaden community support and involvement in the Listening Project by forming coalitions and partnerships with other organizations. The heart of any Listening Project is trained volunteers from an organized group going out into a community to listen to (interview) individuals. These volunteers use active listening. (listeningproject.org)

Process. Listening Projects use trained volunteers to conduct one-on-one interviews that address

 local and sometimes national or international issues. Interviewers take time to build trust and understanding so that people interviewed can go deeper into their fears, hurts, hopes, needs, feelings and ideas. (listeningproject.org)

Results. As citizens begin to understand that their feelings, opinions and actions can matter, they

 respond in dynamic ways. Some offer creative ideas and solutions. Some take the next step to action or leadership. Thus the Listening Project can be an important step toward individual and community empowerment. (listeningproject.org)

 

Natural Capitalism                           http://www.naturalcapitalism.org

Theory. By eliminating waste, mimicking natural systems, and reinvesting in productive capital the natural capitalist provides a flow of services and optimizes efficiency.

Application. This practice can be applied in all businesses.

Resources. It takes knowledge and discipline to practice natural capitalism.

Process. Natural Capitalism is a new business model that involves four major and synergistic elements: 1) Advanced resource productivity, making natural resources stretch 5, 10, even

 100 times further than before. 2) Ecological redesign (biomimicry). Industrial processes that emulate nature's benign chemistry reduce dependence on nonrenewable inputs, eliminate waste and toxicity, and often allow more efficient production. 3) Service and flow. Leasing an illumination service, for example, rather than selling light bulbs. 4) Reinvestment in natural capital. Finding an exciting range of new cost-effective ways to restore and expand the natural capital. (naturalcapitalism.org)

Results. Firing the unproductive tons, gallons, and kilowatt-hours makes it possible to invest in human capital-the people who foster the innovation that drives future success.

 

Nonviolent Communication                      http://www.cnvc.org/nvc.htm

Theory. When we focus on clarifying what is being observed, felt, and needed, rather than on diagnosing and judging, we discover the depth of our own compassion. (cnvc.org)

Application. Anyone can practice nonviolent communication. When practiced consistently it will help individuals avoid many of the misunderstandings and hurt feelings that create conflict.

Resources. Reading a book is not enough, a community book study might be effective because the individual would have others to practice with. A series of community workshop with an NVC trainer would be ideal.

Process. NVC guides us to reframe how we express ourselves and hear others by

 focusing our consciousness on what we are observing, feeling, needing and requesting. We are trained to make careful observations free of evaluation, and to specify behaviors and conditions that are affecting us. We learn to hear our own deeper needs and those of others, and to identify and clearly articulate what we are wanting in a given moment. (cnvc.org)

The person using NVC strives to; share their perception of an event, the meaning they see in this, the feelings that result from that interpretation, their needs that are not being met, and then to request an response that would meet that need.

Results. “Through its emphasis on deep listening—to ourselves as well as others—NVC fosters respect, attentiveness and empathy, and engenders a mutual desire to give from the heart. The form is simple, yet powerfully transformative.” (cnvc.org)

 

Office of University Partnerships                             http://www.oup.org/

Community Outreach Partnerships Centers Program      http://170.97.167.13/progdesc/copc.cfm

Theory. The Office of University Partnerships is committed to helping colleges and universities

 join with their neighbors to address urban problems—partnerships that enable students, faculty, and neighborhood organizations to work together to revitalize the economy, generate jobs, and rebuild healthy communities. (oup.org)

Application. OUP has organized the Community Outreach Partnership Centers and the Association for Community Higher Education Partnerships to help take teaching and community building skills into the community.

Resources. OUP depends on HUD funding and at this time that resource is missing so both of its community programs are unfunded.

Process. OUP makes grants, organizes interactive conferences, and conducts research that helps colleges and universities to implement community activities, create a dialogue with communities to gain knowledge and support of partnership activities, and assist in producing the next generation of urban scholars and professionals who are focused on housing and community development issues. (oup.org)

Results. Examples of activities that successful COPCs have undertaken include:

  • Job training and counseling to reduce unemployment.
  • Resident-backed strategies to spur economic growth and reduce crime.
  • Local initiative to combat housing discrimination and homelessness.
  • Mentoring programs for neighborhood youth.
  • Financial and technical assistance for new businesses. (copcp)

 

Open Question Circles http://www.co-intelligence.org/P-OpenQuestionCircles.html

Originally from http://www.awakeningcommunity.org

Theory. By responding to a well-designed Open Question, participants develop an emotional,

 visceral, and intellectual recognition of shared values. This sharing replaces the assumption of separation with an experience of deep connection. This experience often feels like a great discovery which leaves participants more energized and enthusiastic. (awakeningcommunity)

Application. This has obvious uses in situations where we are trying to bring people together.

 For residential communities, conferences, problem-solving activities, conflict resolution efforts, etc., Open Question Circles can create a context of openness and appreciation of common intent among participants, setting a productive tone for the gathering right from the beginning. (awakeningcommunity)

Resources. This process needs a space large enough for the community to break out into circles of 5 – 7. It would be quite adaptable to a 2 or 3 hour time period. Volunteer facilitators are needed.

Process. Form circles of from 5 – 7. Designate a facilitator in each circle. Brief everyone on the process. Give each facilitator a card with these questions:

  • "What would make _______ [the name of the shared organization, enterprise or circumstance] more wonderful for you?"
  • "What would that do for you personally?"
  • "Thank you."

The facilitator poses these questions, in this order, to the person next to them. That person takes the time to answer from the heart. The facilitator then passes the card to the person who just answered and they ask the person next to them the same questions. Complete at least three rounds. Ideas may be written on post it’s and organized by affinity. Have an open discussion afterwards.

Results. This experience of deep connection naturally tends to expand one's sense of community, from narrow self-interest to the more inclusive interests of the group or community. From such an expanded sense of mutual caring come inspiration and personal motivation to develop new strategies and the willingness to do what it takes to make the world a place where everyone can have a full and satisfying life. (awakeningcommunity)

 

Open Sentences Practice         http://www.co-intelligence.org/P-opensentence.html

Theory. Having this structure allows individuals to speak their ideas, then feelings, then look for new possibilities. This process will take from 15 - 20 minutes.

Application. Open sentences practice can defuse a tense situation in a short time. It can be used before a meeting after people have been informed to prepare participants to engage productively.

Resources. To get the most out of this process have a space where everyone can pair up face to face, have a facilitator familiar with the process and have a card for each pair with the sentences on it.

Process. “People sit in pairs, face to face and close enough to attend to each other fully.

One is Partner A, the other Partner B.” In turn the facilitator announces the sentences with A completing them then B completes the same sentences. The quality of listening and silence between questions are very important.

”The issue questions may be phrased by the guide in the following way:
1. I've just heard a lot about [the issue] and the questions I still have are ...
2. What I'm hearing about [the issue] makes me feel...
3. But [the issue] presents some new possibilities, and facing it together could enable us to...” (Atlee)

 Results. This exercise gives everyone a chance to speak and hear and sort the information so they are better prepared for the meeting.

 

Open Space Technology                                     http://www.openspaceworld.org/

Theory. The essence of Open Space Technology is invitation. Invitation gathers people into

 the event, where they are further invited to post more invitations. The results of the groups that accrete around those smaller invitations are invitations to carry the work into the larger world. Practicing invitation...(openspaceworld)

Application. Open Space works best when the work to be done is complex, the people and

 ideas involved are diverse, the passion for resolution (and potential for conflict) are high, and the time to get it done was yesterday. Open Space will work for groups of from 5 – 1500 and can take from hours to days. (openspaceworld)

Resources. Preparations for and the logistics of a conference are quite complex. Invitations need to state the why and what of the conference clearly. Depending on the number of participants this will take a team to organize and stage. Part of the reason is that the team needs to be prepared for quite a few contingencies so the conference can flow where it will.

Process. Tom Atlee gives a good summary of the process. After an opening overview of the process: Anyone who wants to initiate a discussion or activity, writes it down on a large sheet

 of paper in big letters and then stands up and announces it to the group. After selecting one of the many pre-established times and places, they post their proposed workshop on a wall. When everyone who wants to has announced and posted their initial offerings, it is time for what Owen calls "the village marketplace": Participants mill around the wall, putting together their personal schedules for the remainder of the conference. The first meetings begin immediately.

The Law of Two Feet (prevails): "If you find yourself in a situation where you aren't learning or contributing, go somewhere else.".(Atlee)

The conference closes by bringing everyone back together and having the various groups present their action statements.

Results. These conferences generate an abundance of ideas, energy, relationships, and plans. The biggest challenge is to keep the members of the various groups in touch with the other members of their group. Without this support participants tend to not follow through on planned actions.

 

Participatory Learning and Action                   

http://www.iied.org/NR/agbioliv/pla_notes/index.html

Resource Centers for Participatory Planning and Action                   http://www.rcpla.org/

http://www.iapad.org/links_participation.htm

Participatory Planning Monitoring and Evaluation            http://portals.wi.wur.nl/ppme/?Participatory_Learning_and_Action

Theory. People need to participate in their own evolving processes, with the freedom

 and ability to gain information, and to act upon such information, in a manner determined by them (Lawrence, 1993; SSG, 1992), This sums up the pedagogic goals of PLA precisely, namely self-learning, self-teaching, and self-action for self reliance. (Cf Swanepoel & De Beer, 1996; Chambers, 1997: 102-61.) (Wetmore 39)

Application. Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) is an umbrella term for a wide range of

 similar approaches and methodologies, including Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Participatory Learning Methods (PALM), Participatory Action Research (PAR), Farming Systems Research (FSR), Méthod Active de Recherche et de Planification Participative (MARP), and many others. The common theme to all these approaches is the full participation of people in the processes of learning about their needs and opportunities, and in the action required to address them. (rcpla)

Resources. The primary vehicle for this practice is the: Informal Journal on Participatory

 Learning and Action Approaches and Methods, reaching over 20,000 readers in 121 countries. Since its first issue in 1988, it has provided a forum for those engaged in participatory work - community workers, activists and researchers - to share their experiences, conceptual reflections and methodological innovations with others, providing a genuine voice from the field. All the material is copyright free and we encourage photocopying of articles for sharing and training, provided the source is acknowledged. (rcpla)

Process. Participatory approaches offer a creative approach to investigating issues of concern

 to poor people, and to planning, implementing, and evaluating development activities. They challenge prevailing biases and preconceptions about people's knowledge. The methods used range from visualization, to interviewing and group work. The common theme is the promotion of interactive learning, shared knowledge, and flexible, yet structured analysis.(iied)

Results. These methods have proven valuable in a wide range of sectors and situations, in both

 North and South. Participatory approaches can also bring together different disciplines, such as agriculture, health and community development, to enable an integrated vision of livelihoods and well-being. They offer opportunities for mobilising local people for joint action. (iied)

 

Peace Education           http://www.peace-ed.org/whoarewe/whitepapers/whitepaper.pdf

Theory. Children aren’t born with the natural ability to resolve conflicts peacefully. They

 must see the behavior modeled, be taught the content, have opportunities to apply what they have learned and receive feedback and recognition regarding the use of their skills. (peace-ed)

Application. The Peace Education Foundation offers educational programs for children and adults especially from birth through grade 12. They offer training in conflict resolution skills including; community building, developmentally appropriate rules, understanding conflict, perception, anger management and communication skills. Mediation skills are taught with classroom experience for children and printed materials for parents.

Resources. This practice depends on trainers at all levels, parents, childcare attendants, and teachers from kindergarten through college. The Foundation strives to educate and train on all these levels.

Process. “The teacher is key to the success of PEF’s Conflict Resolution program because the teacher facilitates the process by which students hone their skills. This process involves five strategies:” (Peace-ed.) Model peacemaking, teach conflict resolution and mediation, coach the children as they apply the skills, encourage children to use their skills, delegate and export by having children teach others. The teacher can also encourage parents to support the process.

Results. In 1994, staff teams from seven alternative and two middle schools with a high

 percentage of at-risk students received training in the PEF Conflict Resolution model. Post-intervention surveys showed that:

• Student attitudes toward conflict changed significantly after learning the PEF model.

• Students were more inclined to explain, reason, compromise or share in order to resolve their conflicts.

• Students were less likely to appeal to authority figures or use aggression and threats when in conflict.

• Teachers surveys indicated that they felt more respected and less frustrated as a result of

implementing the PEF model. (Peace-ed)

 

Prayer                            http://www.zenpeacemakers.org/sa/circles.htm

 

Theory. Many spiritual traditions have community building and peacemaking ministries. In most traditions there is a belief in an all present Power. Prayer connects the participant to this power and therefore to all of the human community. Referring to the work of Zenpeacemakers, founder, Bernie Glassman says:

This work calls for the creation of new upayas, or skillful means, that bring people to directly experience the interconnectedness of all life within the context of everyday behavior. It calls for new structures, new earth forms. (zen)

Application. Where appropriate, opening a meeting with some form of prayer serves to unite and center participants. It can also connect participants to their values.

Resources. To use prayer in the community setting it is essential that the person doing the invocation do so in a non-denominational way avoiding names for Spirit.

Process. Asking the community to hold a few moments of silence to become aware of the presence and guiding power of spirit or higher power, or inner wisdom, or wisdom of the circle, or nature is easy and neutral.

Results. This call to do something together, that is simultaneously unique to each individual, can set the tone of self esteem and self expression combined with honoring others.

 

Renewing Democracy Initiative

Http://www.racematters.org/communitybuilderstoolkit.htm

Theory. In a survey of 13 community building projects the initiative found that in dealing with racism all of them were working on bridging the gap between the “haves” and “have nots.”

It became apparent that these communities were doing the work of democracy. They were organizing individuals to create a collective demand for equitable economic, educational, employment and other opportunities; they were experimenting with governance structures that embody equitable representation and decision making; they were making use of the power that lies in multiple voices to take actions and to encourage others to take actions. (racematters)

Application. Approach struggling communities with democracy in mind.

Resources. The practice requires leaders skilled at publicity, facilitation and organization.

Process. A procedure for (building community) is proving to be effective in various places

 around the country. It begins by identifying and isolating matters that affect a majority of residents in any given area. Then, the residents themselves create the vision for what constitutes a good place to live. Third, skilled leaders organize folks and work through a carefully representative and equitable process for deciding what it would take to make things better. And finally, the organized residents take specific actions that promise to improve and strengthen the neighborhood. These are the essential steps in building a community.  (Institute 6)

Results. This process if done well could yield a community which individually and collectively takes responsibility for manifesting their collective vision.

 

Resilient Communities Project         http://www.resilientcommunities.org

Theory. Researchers theorize that resilience is a result of social capital and community capacity. These are the same assets that would make a healthy community.

Application. The research into the historical, environmental, social, and political factors influencing resilience can be useful background to all practices that strive to increase the resilience of communities.

Resources. There are a variety of practices being used to improve resilience in communities including many of those listed here. This research and the more inclusive view it requires can be an excellent foundation for those practices.

Process. Refining our understanding and measurement of social cohesion, social capital, and

 social memory in these communities, plotting the social networks, and assessing levels and kinds of identification with the community (will help us) develop real understanding of the processes through which social capital is built and employed. (http://www2.arts.ubc.ca/rcp/project/outline.php)

Results. Resilient communities exhibit a sense of pride and openness to new ideas and

 alternatives.--- When disaster strikes, losses, both financial and human, are reduced.

A local economy, aware of its social capital, is more likely to weather economic recession and remain intact afterwards, keeping money in the community. (http://www.healthycommunities.on.ca/publications/factsheets/resilient.htm)

Roberts Rules of Order            www.robertsrules.com            http://www.rulesonline.com/

Theory. Robert's Rules is efficient at getting through an agenda. It offers order and

 predictability. Its many checks and balances can provide an enormous degree of protection against demagoguery, impulsivity and laziness. Robert's Rules gives people shared language, and shared points of reference with which to communicate thoughtfully and systematically about their process. (Atlee)

Application. Fixed ideas and passionately-held beliefs are welcomed, listened to, reflected, and

 fully acknowledged.  (Atlee)

Resources. A chairperson and a parliamentarian who are well versed in the rules are needed to use this process. The chairperson (who has a clearly defined role and constraints) maintains

 order, keeps discussion progressing towards a decision and decides (with the parliamentarian) procedural matters by the book. In a meeting governed by Robert's Rules, the ideal participant is rational, articulate and knowledgeable about procedure.

 (Atlee)

Process. The most succinct overview of the rules comes from the Management Help website:

All motions must be seconded and adopted by a majority vote unless otherwise noted.
All motions may be debated unless otherwise noted.

Each motion that is debated receives ten minutes of debate. The member initiating the motion speaks first. The Chair asks for a rebuttal. All members wishing to speak about the motion receive the opportunity to speak before any one member speaks for a second time. Majority vote is more than half of the members. 2/3's vote is more 2/3s or more of the members. Be sure to announce what is being voted on before the vote. (http://www.managementhelp.org/boards/roberts.htm)

Results. “Success = workable decisions made in a timely, orderly manner. The goal for the group as a whole is to manage itself independently of internal and external domination. People often find themselves choosing to let go of fixed ideas quite easily, as there is nothing to defend.” (Atlee)

 

Scenario and Visioning Work                   http://transitionculture.org/?p=153

Theory. In organizations, strategic visions that come from (and therefore reside in) the hearts

 and minds of the stakeholders (as opposed to mission statements dictated from above) allow a facilitative (rather than directive) management style to be effective. (transition)

Application. This organizational mode is especially effective in times of uncertainty or rapid

 change or when the sphere of operation is very complex, since centralized linear management systems cannot efficiently process the vast amounts of information involved. (transition)

Resources. The facilitator for this process should be good at leading guided visualizations. There has to be enough room for everyone to break out in small groups and come back together as a large group.

Process. The facilitator asks everyone individually to imagine themselves in an ideal future. What is it like? Cover all aspects of their imaginary future.

 Then they'd break the crowd into groups of 3-5 and participants would take turns focusing on one person, asking them questions, helping them get their vision really solid and clear, and then helping them get it articulated in a written paragraph. Then they'd move on to the next person in the group.... until they'd all gotten something written up.

Then everyone would post their future-descriptions around the room and there'd be a long break while people read each other's descriptions. After the break people would reconfigure in groups of individuals whose visions were similar. This time they'd move TOGETHER in their imaginations to their more-or-less-shared future and work up detailed collective scenarios. Then, together, they'd REMEMBER what had happened over the years since this very workshop that led to their chosen future, with particular attention on what they did following the present-time workshop to bring their chosen future about. All this "remembering," of course, was going on in their imaginations. Then they'd transform themselves into an action group to plan and do those things needed to bring about that future. (Atlee) They would also consider the feasibility, probability of the scenarios and possible road blocks.

Results. This would generate a wide variety of possible forms for and routes to diverse futures

 all of which embody new era values and take into account new era realities. The resulting futures would align to new era values because only people for whom new era values were paramount would participate in formulating those futures. (Atlee)

 

Strategic Questioning             http://www.jobsletter.org.nz/pdf/stratq97.pdf

http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC40/Peavey.htm

Theory. By asking questions that don’t have easy answers we push each other to dig deeper into our minds and hearts and uncover new possibilities and new relationships. This process encourages us to work together to discover our new future and build it.

Application. Strategic questioning can be used to: “Build good group collaboration, Create strategies for change, get through blocks in workshops, and learn good listening skills.” (http://www.health.qld.gov.au/capir/library/strategic.asp)

Resources. Fran Peavey frames this as a one-on-one process. It should work in a group as well. A facilitator can time each set of questions and call out the content area of the next question.

Process. Questions are all open questions, the more un-askable and unanswerable the better. Peavey lists the following categories of questions to be given in this order:

1)      Focus questions. Begin with questions that reveal concerns and issues.

2)      Observation questions. What have you seen, heard, read?

3)      Analysis questions. What do you think? What does it mean to you? Why?

4)      Feeling questions. How has this affected your emotional health/

5)      Visioning questions. How would you like it to be?

6)      Change questions. Who can change what and how?

7)      Consider all the alternatives. What other possibilities are there?

8)      Consider the consequences. How will this effect ____?

9)      Consider obstacles. What keeps you from ___?

10)  Personal inventory and support questions. How can I support you?

11)  Personal action Questions. Who do you need to talk to?

The questioner / listener must really listen. Listen as if your life depends on it. Look for the “change view” of the people affected. Listen to pain. (Peavey) And I might add: Listen to joy, courage, love, values, --.

Result. Strategic Questioning is a process that usually changes the listener as well as

 the person being questioned. A strategic question opens both of us to another point of view. It invites our ideas to shift and take into account new information and new possibilities. And it invokes that special creativity that can forge fresh strategies for meeting challenges. (jobs)

 

Study Circles                          http://www.studycircles.org/en/index.aspx

Theory. Direct change happens when people gain new understanding of an issue, and form

 new relationships – across the barriers of race, background, political ideology, income, and geography. Individuals or small-groups commit to action. Some people take their new ideas and approaches back to their organizations, and sow the seeds of institutional change. (study)

Application. Study circles, being small, democratic and non-expert, can be adapted to

 virtually any use. Civic organizations, activists, businesses, unions, churches, discussion groups and governments can all sponsor (and have sponsored) study circles to educate and activate people about social issues. (Atlee)

Resources. No single organization or person can create an effective program without help.

 To ensure diverse, large-scale participation, the program organizing must be driven by a group of community leaders and organizations who mirror the diversity of the whole community. (study)

Successful study circles are funded well enough to obtain all the informational materials needed and print copies for the participants as well as publicize the process and the results of the process.

Process. Leaders approach community organizing in a variety of ways, depending on the local situation, the issue at hand, the political climate and the people involved. Study circle organizers want leaders from the beginning, from all parts of the community, the elite and the disenfranchised, who initiate change at many levels—individual, group, institutional, and policy.

Dialogue

Study circle programs embody an approach to community change that puts small-group facilitated dialogue at the center. Study circles work because they bring different kinds of people together around a public concern, and create a space that enables constructive, respectful conversation. Circles meet over time, and people develop trust and relationships, as well as a shared understanding of the issue under discussion.

The dialogue is guided by trained facilitators who manage the discussion and make room for all voices. Study circles rely on ground rules, created by the group, to help make the conversation work for everyone.

Study circles use discussion materials which set up a framework for the conversation. People begin with personal stories, move on to a discussion of the issue, including data or other relevant factual material. Participants examine the issue from many points of view, consider many possible approaches, and ultimately, develop ideas for action and change.  

Connecting dialogue to action and change

Study circle dialogues lead to a range of possible outcomes. Early on, organizers consider questions like “What are we hoping to accomplish? “What would success look like in our community?”  and “How can we support the ideas that are generated through study circles?”

All kinds of change can result from a study circle program:

·         Changes in individual behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes

·         New relationships and networks

·         Institutional changes

·         Changes in public policy. (http://www.studycircles.org//en/Page.Organizing.aspx)

Result. Study circles in a district of 20 schools in Inglewood CA resulted in: Relationships

 among parents of different racial and ethnic backgrounds improved immediately, as did relationships between parents and the schools. The study circles yielded long-term benefits, as well. Parents and community members who took part gained a better understanding of education issues and worked to help pass Measure K, which made $131 million available for improvements to school facilities. (study)

 

Tavistock (aka Human Relations, Group Relations) / T Groups

                                                                                    http://www.tavinstitute.org/index.php

http://www.nycgrouprelations.org/

Theory. Through silence, and often without awareness, we give support to various initiatives,

 thereby colluding anonymously: " . . . there is no way in which the individual can, in a group, 'do nothing' -- not even by doing nothing." (p. 58) " . . . all members of a group are responsible for the behaviour of the group." ( p. 118)  Bion found these anonymous collusions to occur in patterns associated with particular clusters of emotions and implicit assumptions toward leadership and authority. He identified three of these patterns: bDependency, Fight/Flight, and Pairing. Bion conceived of group culture as resulting from the conflict between the desires of the individual and group mentality. (Lipgar 3)

Application. Tavistock’s study of group emotional dynamics provides background information that helps leaders understand their role in group formation and persistence.

Resources. The group work that generates these insights into self requires time and intention.

Process. Conferences are structured so the way an individual participates in the activities is itself the material to be observed and worked on. This includes covert and collusive behavior and the group mentality. “A T Group (the 't' stands for training) is a group activity in which you give

 and receive feedback about emotional (and other) reactions to one another. You're likely to hear (and say) things like, "When you say/do X, I feel Y." Participants learn about how they are read by others, and a lot about interpersonal dynamics in general. (tavinstitute)

Result. The Tavistock model of 'working conferences' continues to be a most powerful way to learn about authority, leadership, responsibility, power and influence. (Lipgar)

Widening Circles Exercise       http://www.co-intelligence.org/P-wideningcircles.html

Theory. The purpose of the exercise is to enable people to look at perspectives other than

 the one that dominates their individual experience. (Atlee)  "To speak on behalf of another, and identify even briefly with that being's experience and perspective, is an act of moral imagination. It is not difficult to do: as children we know how to "play-act." (Macy)

Application. “It is especially appropriate for social activists, bringing, in Joanna Macy's words, "wisdom, patience, flexibility, and perseverance." (Atlee) The anger, frustration and burnout that many activists hold just under the surface, but which shows up in their work, could be broken up with this exercise.

Resources. All that is needed is a facilitator with the instructions and a timing device.

Process. Participants sit in groups of four, facing each other. The facilitator asks them to bring

 to mind an aspect of the problem that concerns them, allowing a moment of silence. Invite each person, in turn, to describe the issue from each of four perspectives. (This occurs simultaneously in each group of four.) The four perspectives:

1.      From their own experience and point of view, including feeling;

2.      From the perspective of a person whose views on the issue are very different, even adversarial, introducing themselves and speaking as this person, using the pronoun "I" and the present tense of verbs;

3.      From the viewpoint of a non-human being that may be impacted by how we deal with the issue;

4.      In the voice of a future human whose life will be directly affected by the choices and actions we take now on the issue.

The facilitator announces each perspective when the time comes in the exercise. The perspectives are repeated in the same sequence for each of the following speakers. It is best to allow three minutes for each perspective. Signal the time with a verbal cue ("take another moment to finish") and then with a bell or chime to end that step. Allow for silence between each step and after each person finishes.
At the conclusion, allow time for people to share in their small groups what they felt and learned. If the size of the whole group is large, and time permits, you may wish to invite brief reports from volunteers . (Atlee)

Result. Participants will have a different perspective on the issue at hand.

 

Wisdom Council                          http://www.vision-nest.com/cbw/Wisdom.html

            http://www.tobe.net/Wisdom%20Council%20stuff/WisdomCouncil.html

Theory. A wisdom council is a one-time, randomly-selected group of stakeholders who,

 through special facilitation, produce a consensus statement which is made available to the larger population for further dialogue and action. (Atlee) The Wisdom Council is designed to empower and draw out the collective intelligence of a large number of people, especially citizens in a democracy. (Rough)

Application. Jim Rough proposes using a wisdom council with a government agency, and has used this practice with a high school.

Resources. A group facilitator helps the Council determine key issues, manages the group process, and helps stimulate creative thinking. It is critical to have facilitators who understand self-organizing change and how to facilitate dynamically.

Process. The council may meet once, multiple times over a period of time or regularly. It is best if the community chooses to have the council and that they participate in the process of obtaining participants. During Wisdom Council meetings, the coordinators make sure that participants are

 adequately sequestered, that they have accurate meeting notes, and that requests for information are met. The facilitator orients participants to make lists, record them, be nonjudgmental of each other, express themselves, capture movement and come to consensus. The conclusions of the council should be widely published and discussed. (Rough)

Result. “Statements of Unanimity can create a new dawn: by themselves (they) can spark positive change.” (Rough)

Worldwork                                                          http://www.aamindell.net/worldwork-terms.htm http://www.worldwork.org/home.htm

Theory. Mindell's purpose in his "process worldwork" workshops is not primarily therapy for individuals. He's trying to "work the field," to call forth the unconscious, collective, polarized patterns -- the archetypal collective voices of racism, terrorism, war, or revenge -- out into the open where they can evolve through dialogue. He has a faith -- and some glimmerings of evidence -- that this work has an impact on the larger community beyond the walls of the workshop. He is less concerned with conflict resolution, though, than with increasing people's understanding of the dynamics -- and human experience -- of abuse, power and history. (Atlee)

Application. Between two and three hundred people from over thirty countries and all walks

 of life participate in these 7 - 10 day gatherings. The large staff facilitates a diversity of learning experiences that include large group focus and interaction, small group meetings, one-to-one sessions and networking groups. (Mindell)

Resources. This is a staff, organization and location intensive process as currently practiced.

Process. Worldwork was developed by Dr. Arnold Mindell, founder of process-oriented

 psychology or process work. Process work is an innovative and comprehensive psychotherapeutic modality designed for working with the entire spectrum of human consciousness. This dynamic approach to the unity of mind, body, spirit and the world has its roots in Jungian psychology, Taoism, shamanism and modern physics. It integrates dream work, bodywork, relationship work, extreme states, meditation and large group work into a single theoretical framework. (Mindell)

Result. The seminar provides a unique opportunity for people from all over the world to come together in a powerful forum for focusing on and working with social, environmental, and political issues using group process skills.

 

Conclusion

This assortment of practices and many more not covered here all serve the general functions of: expanding understanding, awareness, and empathy while deepening self knowledge, compassion, and intuition. Any one of these assets taken alone, or all of them together, will help the individual relate to others and conditions in a way that builds social capital, supports resilient community and precipitates joint action.

 

 

Works Cited

Anderson, Andrea A. and Sharon Milligan. “Social Capital and Community Building.” Community Change: Theories Practice and Evidence. Eds. Auspos, Patricia and Karen Fullbright-Anderson. Washington DC. 2006. 21-60

Atlee, Tom. The co-intelligence Institute. 2006. <http://www.co-intelligence.org/>

Atlee, Tom. The Tao of Democracy. Rhode Island: Writers Collective 2003

Auspos, Patricia and Anne C. Kubisch. Building Knowledge about Community Change: Moving Beyond Evaluations. (November 2004). The Aspen Institute Roundtable on Community Change

Berg, Peter. “Bioregionalism.” Planet Drum. 2006. <http://www.planetdrum.org/bioregionalism_defined.htm>

Bohm, David. “On Meaning, Purpose and Exploration in Dialogue.” Edited from tapes of an August 1990 conversation. Sarah Bohm Ed. Accessed May 24, 2007. <http://www.david-bohm.net/dialogue/dialogue_exploration.html>

Boyes-Watson, Carolyn. “Seeds of Change: Using Peacemaking Circles to Build a Village for Every Child.” Child Welfare. 84.2 (2005): 191-208 (AN 16371769) Academic Search Premier. SMUMN. Accessed 29 May 2007. < http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu/ehost/results>

Browne, Bliss R. “Imagine Chicago: A Methodology for Cultivating Community.” Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology.  14 (2004) : 394–405  John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2004

Cordero-Guzman, Hector and Patricia Auspos. “Community Economic Development and Community Change.” Community Change: Theories, Practice, and Evidence. Eds. Karen Fulbright-Anderson & Patricia Auspos. Washington DC: The Aspen Institute 2006

Duguid, Paul. “The Art of Knowing: Social and Tacit Dimensions of Knowledge and the Limits of the Community of Practice.” Information Society. 21.2 (Apr-Jun 2005): 109-118 Academic Search Premier. Metro State. St. Paul May 24, 2007 <http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.metrostate.edu/ehost/>

Fenderson, Adam. and Andrew Walker-Morison. “The Heart and Despair of Peak Oil.” Energy Bulletin. (16 March 2006) accessed May 24,2007 <http://www.energybulletin.net/13964.html>

Fishkin J. “Realizing Deliberative Democracy: Virtual and Face to Face Possibilities.” Electronic Working Papers Series. (2005) W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics, University of British Columbia at <www.ethics.ubc.ca.>

Flavine-McDonald, Catherine and Molly Holme Barett. “The Topsfield Foundation: Fostering Democratic Community Building Through Face-to-Face Dialogue.New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education. 81 (Spring 1999): 25-37. Academic Search Premier. EBSCOhost Saint Mary’s University Accessed 31 May 2007 < http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy. SMUMN.edu>

Greenberg, Anna. “The Church and the Revitalization of Politics and Community”. Political Science Quarterly. 115.3 (Fall 2000). 377-395 (AN 3726547) <http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu/ehost/>

The Institute for Democratic Renewal and Project Change Anti-Racism Initiative. Community Builder’s Toolkit. (1998) <www.race-democracy.org>

Kellogg, W. K. Foundation. “From Attention Through Hope to Action.” (AHA) Notes From the Kalamazoo Evaluation Conference. January 10-11, 1995 accessed may 25, 2007 at < http://www.wkkf.org/DesktopModules/WKF.00_DmaSupport/>

Kretzmann, John P. and John L. McKnight. Building Communities From The Inside Out: A path toward finding and mobilizing a community’s assets. Evanston, IL: The Asset-Based Community Development Institute, Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University 1993

Kubisch, Anne C.. “Have Our Methods to Study Collaboration Outpaced Our Methods to Sustain Collaboration?” Criminology & Public Policy. 3.2 (Mar 2004). (AN 13027322) accessed May 22, 2007 Academic Search Premier <http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu/ehost/>

Larsson, Staffan. “Seven aspects of democracy as related to study circles.International Journal of Lifelong Education. 20.3 (May2001):199-217. Academic Search Premier. EBSCOhost Saint Mary’s University Accessed 31 May 2007 < http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu>

Lawry, John D. “How Circles can Change Learning.” Rev. of The Way of Council. by Jack Zimmerman and Virginia Coyle. About Campus March-April 1998

Lipgar, Robert M. “Beyond Bion’s Experiences in Groups: Group Relations Research and Learning.” Chicago Center for the Study of Groups and Organizations (CCSGO). (1997) A. K. Rice Institute. Accessed 31 May 2007 < http://www.sicap.it/~merciai/bion/papers/lipgar.htm>

Macy, Joanna and Molly Young Brown. Coming Back to Life: Practices to Reconnect Our Lives.  Stoney Creek, CT: New Society  1998

Maxey, Larch Juckes. “The Participation of Younger People within Intentional Communities: Evidence from Two Case Studies.Children's Geographies. 2.1 (Feb 2004). 29-48. Academic Search Premier. SMUMN EBSCOhost. 28 May. 2007 <http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy. SMUMN.edu/ehost/results?>

McGinnis, James. “The School as a Peacemaking Community:10 Key Ingredients.” Reports – Descriptive. 1998ERIC Educational Resources Center. (ED421738) Metropolitan State University 10 July 2005 http://www.eric.ed.gov

McNeely, Joseph. “Community Building.” Journal of Community Psychology. 27.6 (1999): 741-750. Academic Search Premier. SMUMN. 11 May. 2007 http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu/ehost/results?

Merkel-Holguin, Lisa. “Sharing Power with the People:Family Group Conferencing as a Democratic Experiment.Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare. 31.1 (Mar2004): 155-173. (AN 12600176) accessed May 25, 2007 Academic Search Premier. < http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.metrostate.edu/ehost/results>

Mitchell, Stacy. “The Big Box Swindle: The true cost of mega-retailers.” Multinational Monitor. (Sept/Oct 2006): 34-40. Academic Search Premier. SMUMN. 26 May. 2007 http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu/ehost/results

Morrell, Michael. “Deliberation, Democratic Decision-Making and Internal Political Efficacy.” Political Behavior. 27.1 (Mar 2005): 49-69. Academic Search Premier. SMUMN. 26 May 2007 <http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu/ehost/results>

Peavey, Fran. “Strategic Questioning: An Approach to Creating Personal and Social Change.” Ed. Vivian Hutchinson.  1997 Accessed 30 May 2007 <http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC40/Peavey.htm>

Pennell, Joan and Gale Burford. “Family Group Decision Making: Protecting Children and Women.Child Welfare. 79.2 (Mar/April 2000): 131-158. (AN 3552056) accessed May 25, 2007 Academic Search Premier. < http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.metrostate.edu/ehost/results>

Roberts, Rona. What Works: Study Circles in the Real World. (2003) for the Topsfield Foundation, Inc., and based on research by Roberts & Kay, Inc., Lexington, Kentucky.

Rosenberg, Marshall B.. Nonviolent Communication. 2nd ed. California: Puddle Dancer. (2003)

Rosenhek, Ruth. “Earth, Spirit, and Action: The Deep Ecology Movement as Spiritual Engagement.” The Trumpeter. 22.2 (2006). Issn:0832-6193 <http://trumpeter.athabascau.ca/index.php/trumpet/article/viewFile/910/1342>

Rossing, Boyd and Michelle Glowacki-Dudka. “Inclusive community in a diverse world: Pursuing an elusive goal through narrative-based dialogue.Journal of Community Psychology. 29.6 (Nov 2001): 729-743. Academic Search Premier. SMUMN. 26 May 2007 <http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu/ehost/results>

Rough, Jim. “Dynamic facilitation and the magic of self-organizing change.” Journal for Quality & Participation. 20.3 (Jun1997) 10409602 accessed May 25, 2007. < http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.metrostate.edu/ehost>

Rough, Jim. “The Wisdom Council and Responsible Leadership” Journal for Quality and Participation. 19.7 (Dec96) Academic Search Premier. EBSCOhost Saint Mary’s University Accessed 31 May 2007 < http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu>

Scotthanson, Chris and Kelly Scotthanson. The Cohousing Book: Building a Place for Community. Canada: New Society. 2005

Wetmore, Stephen B. and Francois Theron. “Community development and research: Participatory learning and action - a development strategy in itself.  Development Southern Africa. 15.1 (Autum 1998): 29-55 (AN 8508564) Academic Search Premier. SMUMN. 28 May 2007 <http://web.ebscohost.com.xxproxy.SMUMN.edu/ehost/results>

World Café Community. “Café To Go.” Café Guide. 2002 Whole Systems Associates 9 July 2005 <http://www.theworldcafe.com/olderitems.html>